During the past eight years, one could observe an enormous growth of energy cooperatives in Germany from about 50 up to 973 at the end of 2014 (Müller&Holstenkamp 2015). The new energy cooperatives constitute one significant group of enterprises within the so-called citizen energy movement – a heterogeneous conglomeration of initiatives striving for a decentralized post-fossil energy transition – which has not yet a recognized definition (a first attempt is trend:research&Leuphana 2013). Research interested in the potentials for a transformation of the energy system towards renewable sources and citizen-participation has to deal with the diversity and dynamics of this movement. Therefore, as a foundation for future research, this paper provides an orientation within the recent wave of new energy coops as part of the citizen energy movement.
In order to estimate the relevance of cooperatives for a citizen energy transition, it is helpful to structure the field according to criteria that reflect the social conditions and consequences of that endeavor. Thus, the central question is: How to deal with the diversity of energy coops and how to draw a map that shows not just the common technical features, but the various social qualities influencing potential ways of transformation?
The goal is to develop a set of apt criteria and use them for a classification of energy cooperatives as social enterprises in the context of a social movement. Besides providing orientation within the current development in Germany, the second major purpose of this classification is making a specific contribution to the international scholarly exchange of conceptual and empirical research on SE-models.
Since the noticeable emergence of energy cooperatives is a recent dynamic phenomenon, studies on this topic are limited and their results are largely preliminary. Some studies have a comprehensive national focus or even draw international comparisons of coops in the field of renewable energy; still, they provide first overviews of the models and the distribution in countries such as Canada, Denmark, Netherlands, UK, Germany, Austria, and other European countries (CCA 2011; Lipp et al. 2012; Tham&Muneer 2013; Yildiz et al. 2015; Schreuer&Weismeier-Sammer 2010; Schreuer 2012; Huybrechts&Mertens 2014).
With regard to the development in Germany, there have been published several empirical surveys about the status quo (Volz 2012; Maron 2012; Müller&Holstenkamp 2015). Also worth mentioning are the annual surveys of the German Cooperative and Raiffeisen Confederation. Apart from the descriptive surveys there are also some recent analyses evaluating the relevance of energy coops in terms of their socio-economic power for a wider energy system transformation (Debor 2014) and their role as gatekeepers or facilitators (Yildiz et al. 2015).
The diversity of energy cooperatives in Germany is reflected by first classifications using basically technological, organizational and economic criteria. The typology suggested by Flieger (2011), for instance, uses the value chain (production/trade&services/consumption) as structuring concept. A more comprehensive approach is offered by Holstenkamp (2012) as it is based on several other typologies and a comprehensive empirical database. These first classifications are valuable contributions for many (economic) purposes; however, with regard to issues of societal transformation such technical approaches are limited and call for an alternative approach.
The suggested new classification of energy coops is related to selected concepts from the debates on SE and social movements. It combines both genuine empirical research and literature-based conceptual reasoning. The literature review focuses on the traditional and new criteria to define and distinguish (energy) coops, and reveals some lessons taught by the history of cooperatives in Germany. Using the concept of social movements, historical principles of cooperatives are reinterpreted in the light of the current citizen energy movement in order to give them a context-conscious meaning.
These insights are accompanied by empirical surveys: (1) A qualitative survey of more than 30 experts has been conducted in order to gain a broad and profound insight into the field. It provides a multifarious picture of criteria and estimations on relevant aspects such as motives/goals, conditions of founding and societal impact. (2) A comprehensive content analysis of most German energy cooperatives' websites refers to some selected (and adjusted) items from the ICSEM project's questionnaire on SE models. For both analytical and practical reasons the focus of the analysis is on mission, constituents, business model, level of professionalism and governance.
