In numerous large, Middle Eastern cities, English functions as a lingua franca between Arabic-speaking citizens and foreign tourists and/or expatriate residents. Characteristic of English-as-a-lingua-franca (ELF) interaction is focus on understanding overall intended meaning.
This linguistic landscape research focuses on implied meaning found in T-shirts, advertisements, store signs, and Bethlehem Wall graffiti and posters in the Old City and surrounding streets in East Jerusalem, in tourist areas in Bethlehem (January-April, 2015), and, because of their extremely hot climate, one in-door mall each in Dubai and Sharjah (September, 2016).
Using a variation of grounded theory approach, the study was reiterative, with cycles of data collection and qualitative analysis as patterns emerged and additional information was required to address issues raised by the information obtained. Field notes and memos were kept in a research log and reviewed to identify patterns in the use of implied meaning. Once the main societal factors were initially identified, two individuals, Michael Tanas, a marketing instructor at Bethlehem University, and a representative of the Ministry of Culture in Bethlehem, were interviewed to obtain their professional insights about the use of implied meaning in advertising in Bethlehem and East Jerusalem. As potential factors were identified, additional information was sought to evaluate the explanations being formulated about societal factors influencing implied meaning in the linguistic landscape.
These findings are neither comprehensive nor representative of all instances of implied meaning in the four regions in these time periods. Rather the data obtained is a sampling of implied meaning in the linguistic landscapes.
Through the cycles of reiterative analysis, three patterns were observed of societal factors influencing expression of implied meaning in these four regions. Politics featured prominently in Bethlehem, somewhat in Jerusalem, but not at all in the United Arab Emirates. Economic differences were reflected in the specific use of luxury to appeal to Dubai customers (Sharjah somewhat). Demographics (religion and language) were manifested in Christian, Jewish, and/or Islamic views expressed in the four regions, with numerous advertisements, signs, and graffiti using multiple languages.
